Agora: Red Deer Polytechnic Undergraduate Journal
Volume 16:1 2025 Agora Conference Proceedings

Makeup Through Time: Social Status,
Expression, & Gender Roles
Kayla Waldo
In 1950s Australia, women often resorted to hiding their
beauty routines from their husbands, a testament to the anxieties
surrounding cosmetics and deception during that era (Hutchings,
2000). The societal pressure to use cosmetics in secret to appear
‘naturally beautiful’ is just one example of how makeup’s
purpose has changed throughout history. Many scholars offer
insight into the societal norms and practices surrounding the use
of makeup or cosmetics. These practices, particularly in ancient
cultures, suggest ritualistic elements. These ritualistic elements
help explain the application and social significance of cosmetics
and makeup. For example, in Ancient Egypt, women were
buried in their tombs with at least two pots of lip paint, which
shows one of the roles cosmetics played in funeral rituals
(Schaffer, 2007). Across various historical periods, cosmetic
practices became intertwined with concepts of racialization,
particularly in Victorian England, where the ideal of pale skin
was promoted as a symbol of purity, social status, and even racial
superiority (Giannotta, 2023). This paper will examine the
changing purpose of makeup for women throughout history,

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analyzing how it has functioned as a tool for social status,
personal expression, and the negotiation of gender roles, all
while trying to navigate anxieties surrounding its potential for
deception. Makeup has roots and an interesting history in many
places in the world, but for the purpose of this paper, the focus
will be on Ancient Egypt, Ancient Rome, the Victorian Era in
England, the 1950s across North America, and a more modern
view of makeup. By examining the historical context and
societal norms, this paper will help the reader to understand and
appreciate makeup’s complex and multifaceted role across time
and human societies.
Makeup played a big role in Ancient Egyptian society as
they used makeup and other types of cosmetics for their eyes,
face, skin, and hair. Lucas (1930) goes into detail about the
different types of materials used for these cosmetics. For
example, the author notes that the two most common eye paint
ingredients were malachite (a green ore or copper) and galena,
which was a dark grey ore of lead. The paper discusses how
malachite was used earlier, but was replaced by galena. When
mixed with ingredients like the carbonate of lead, it created the
widely used eye paint Kohl. Lucas discusses how the common
idea that Kohl always had antimony in it is wrong. The author
explains that while samples might have had traces of antimony
in them, these traces could be considered impurities. He instead

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thinks that the misconception may come from the Roman
practice of using antimony in eye cosmetics, which led to an
association with Egyptian Kohl. In addition to the use of eye
paint, the source discusses how ancient Egyptian women also
coloured their cheeks with red pigment (red ochre), and this is
based on red pigment being found in graves and associated with
palettes or grinding stones.
Parry and Eaton (1991) further elaborate on the use of
Kohl in their article, stating that this traditional eye makeup held
potential health risks due to its lead content. Lead is a consistent
theme in makeup products across history. The authors discuss
Kohl in the context of the health risks anyone who uses Kohl
may experience, and the article highlights traditional uses of
Kohl such as beautification, warding off the evil eye, and
medical benefits for the eyes. Parry and Eaton give a more
modern context to Lucas’s historical exploration of Egyptian
cosmetics. Their research notes that while the cultural and
aesthetic significance of Kohl has endured time, its potential
health risks have also evolved and become more well-known.
Another author focuses on lipstick in Ancient Egypt,
highlighting how it was a symbol of social status used by both
men and women (Schaffer, 2007). Schaffer explains that both
genders would boldly apply makeup during their daily routine,
and while eyes held the most cultural significance, lips were also

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attention-gaining with the use of red ochre. It is explained that
there was no regulation of these cosmetics, and popular colours
included orange, magenta, blue-black, and, of course, red.
Figures like Queen Cleopatra VII made carmine (red
dye/pigment) a popular choice for lipstick, and it was so
prominent in life that women who could afford to would also
bring lip paint into their tombs after death (Schaffer, 2007). This
author shines light on the social significance of cosmetics like
lipstick in Ancient Egypt.
Makeup held cultural and social significance in Ancient
Rome. Cosmetics could be used to enhance natural beauty, but
some also thought of makeup as deceptive if too much was used.
Olson (2009) discusses how accessing cosmetics wasn’t just for
the wealthy, “the use and prestige of cosmetics crossed
economic boundaries” (p. 291), meaning that makeup and
perfume were not just put in expensive containers, for example,
but also came in cheaper materials like wood or blown glass. The
author notes that the availability of different price points
suggests that the idea of beautification and its social advantages
were considered for not only the elite but also the lower classes.
It is important to note that ingredients may have also differed
across classes. Olson brings up how a smooth, pale complexion
was sought after in Ancient Rome. The author explains that the
paleness showed that a person was not part of the

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working/labour class and rather had time for leisure. The desire
for a pale complexion can also be seen in the Victorian era,
which will be touched on later in the paper. It’s important to note
that while there was an ideal beauty standard in Ancient Rome,
this ideal came with its own anxieties. The author explains that
some women used chalk dust or cerussa (essentially a type of
lead) to lighten their skin, but because of the type of material, it
is at risk of becoming streaky due to sweat or water. So, there
was a fear that makeup could cause a false or fake version of a
woman’s natural beauty, and this would also reflect poorly on
her character. Similar themes of secrecy and preserving natural
beauty can also be seen in the Victorian era. It’s noted that some
people considered cosmetic use to be a waste of time and unRoman; it may have even repelled men because women would
have been considered dishonest and sexually promiscuous.
Another point Olson (2009) makes to highlight how
women would try to achieve flawless skin was the attempts they
made to hide imperfections like blemishes or scars by using
small leather patches called alutae or splenium. The focus on a
woman's pale, flawless complexion shows societal beauty
expectations for women in society. Ideal beauty expectations are
something that have stuck around over centuries, and it doesn’t
appear as though these types of societal expectations will leave
anytime soon. The author continues to discuss cosmetics in

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terms of lining the eyes and colouring lashes. Eyelashes could
be dyed daily by women, and eyelashes may have even fallen
out because of the overuse. The author also mentions Kohl as a
substance used to outline and enhance the eyes. Kohl sticks
would be used for application, which can be tied to the common
day practice of using a rod or applicator to apply eyeliner. Olson
argues that having a beautiful complexion was very important to
the Roman definition of being feminine and sexually attractive.
This idea of using makeup to be more ‘beautiful’ and appear
more ‘attractive’ is still used today. These points help highlight
how makeup was tied to feminine identity and reinforced
societal gender norms of ideal beauty standards. Schaffer
(2007), however, brings up the fact that men also participated in
the use of lip paint, and much like in Ancient Egypt, this was a
mark of social standing/rank.
In the Victorian era in England, it’s clear that many of
these themes from Ancient Rome tie together. Makeup was
significant as it also represented beauty standards, social
rankings/class, and anxieties, as well as racial hierarchies.
Giannotta (2023) goes into detail about how a pale complexion
was considered desirable in this time period as well. Attaining a
pale complexion became a popular beauty standard in the 19th
century (Giannotta, 2023). The author explains that pale skin
accentuates rosy cheeks and lips, therefore enhancing the

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feminine look. It became so popular that women would even
attempt to get diseases or pretend to have symptoms to imitate
the effects/look of consumption, which was a very dangerous
practice. The author notes that the fascination with the
appearance of illness shows how deeply influenced people in the
Victorian era were by ideal concepts of femininity, fragility, and
perceptions of health. Much like the Ancient Romans, Giannotta
explains that the desire for a pale complexion was tied to social
standing and class. Again, the paleness was often associated with
the upper class because they didn’t have to work, and this meant
their skin stayed out of the sun’s glare. Poorer women would
have to try to achieve this look through their use of makeup, and
the desire to look more upper-class created popularity for skinlightening products. The author goes on to discuss the shift from
homemade beauty products to commercial products, which
created more availability of mass-produced items. This was also
impacted by the rise of advertisements.
Giannotta (2023) uses the example of Dr. Mackenzie’s
Arsenical Complexion Wafers, which promoted achieving a pale
complexion through the use of their product but held what we
now know to be harmful ingredients like arsenic. It’s mentioned
that near the end of the 19th century, natural beauty became
more popular, and soap was marketed as a pure product that
would help people look healthy and youthful. Soap

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advertisements showed young women as having the ‘purest’
white skin, and older women appeared duller. The paper explains
that the ‘aging’ reader should not resort to face paints as they are
vain and deceitful. It is noted that articles warned men not to
pick a bride who used large amounts of makeup as it made them
artificial so therefore, soap became more popular to improve a
woman’s natural beauty. An interesting point that Giannotta
brings up is the racialization of beauty and how the obsession
with a white or pale complexion reinforced the idea that
whiteness was the benchmark for beauty, purity, and civilization.
Whiteness was a show of status and also showed how pure a
woman was, both morally and sexually. Throughout her paper,
Giannotta shows the evolution of makeup through the Victorian
era and how it was used to look fashionable, show off class
status, and how it adapted to promote more ‘natural’ products
while still being able to achieve the desired white or pale
complexion.
When it came to the 1950s across North America and
other developed nations, it’s clear that advertising and mass
media started to play a larger role in shaping beauty standards
and promoting femininity, sexual allure, and youthfulness. There
is a constant emphasis on keeping up with an idealized image of
oneself in order to be feminine and hold worth as a woman.
Howard (2000) focuses on how makeup, fashion, personal

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expression, and company culture encourage both the connection
between women (bonding over beauty culture) and reinforce
traditional gender roles. Maidenform (a lingerie company),
promoted a narrow view of what was feminine in the 1940s and
50s. The author explains that this company advertised the idea
that a successful woman was an attractive woman. The author
then talks about the “I Dreamed” campaign, which was built on
the idea of women taking on new feminine identities in their
branded bra, and rather than these identities being a repeat of the
traditional stereotype of a suburban housewife, it pushed for
images of pin-ups or Hollywood sex icons. This campaign
showed women in aspirational roles, but these roles still focused
on being attractive. The company also held beauty contests that
reinforced the significance of being physically attractive and
keeping up with beauty standards.
Hutchings (2000) discusses the impacts of advertising
and media on beauty culture, arguing that advertising promotes
the feeling of female inadequacy and often pushes women
towards unattainable standards. Similar themes that Howard
(2000) discussed can be seen here, such as a woman’s
youthfulness and attractiveness being tied to her worth.
Hutchings explains that the pressure to conform to beauty
standards reinforces traditional gender roles and limits women’s
opportunities. Advertisements are often made to seem more

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legitimate and important by including statements like ‘Beauty
experts agree’ and the paper explains that these statements help
constantly reinforce the idea that beauty should be a woman’s
life's work, regardless of how old they are or if they are married
or not. This means that it should be on their minds at all times
and be something they strive towards no matter what. The author
mentions Nan Hutton, a Woman’s Day columnist, who wrote an
article that critiques all of the different and conflicting advice
women get from ‘experts’ on how to stay attractive while
meeting their husbands' needs. The advertisement uses phrases
like “Never let him see you in curlers,” “Relax and be yourself,”
and “Take an interest in his work” (Hutchings, 2000, p. 52). Nan
then says that it’s impossible to do everything at once, so take
your pick. Hutchings explains that postwar women did exactly
that as they negotiated what it meant to be female and feminine.
The author then discusses the separation of men’s and women’s
public and private spheres; the domestic or private sphere is
considered to be the woman's world, and the public sphere to be
the man’s world. Hutchings explains how all the work and
products that go into creating the female allure are too shocking
for men or husbands to witness, therefore, new wives are advised
to start their beauty routines earlier, behind closed doors, or
while the husbands are away in order to keep their husbands'
illusions alive. The author discusses how the ideal of beauty was

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a part of the separate sphere concept, and women who don’t keep
these spheres separate were criticized for losing modesty and
pride. The author shows how difficult it can be for women to
navigate the conflicting expectations of beauty and seem
effortless no matter what. The heavy expectations placed on
women to stay essentially perfect while keeping all the work
behind doors in their private sphere is a way traditional gender
roles were maintained.
Rudd (1997) discusses how makeup is a tool for creation,
empowerment, and women’s agency in terms of how each
woman wants to present herself. The author argues that makeup
is a ritualized activity that helps women to construct and
transform themselves. This is a more modern idea of makeup
that challenges the idea that makeup is only used to conform to
beauty standards and please men. Rudd explains that the study
of ritual consumer behaviour is focused on the symbolic
meaning of actions involved with the use of products and the
process that takes place. The relationships of the people who
participate in these rituals are also relevant. The author notes that
private ritualistic activities can become public through
conversations with other people who also participate in these
private rituals. The example used is women who use cosmetics
in private space/ritual may create bonds with other women who
are also participating in the same activities, therefore, the acts of

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applying cosmetics may be seen as a collective strategy for
building social identities and creating a sense of power in an
industry that has stifled women. Badaró (2015) looks at women
in the Argentine army and elaborates on how makeup’s
appropriateness and meaning shift depending on situational
context. This source highlights the pull between traditional
femininity and professional identity. The author explains that
women in the army may choose to embrace makeup in their
personal lives in an effort to express their femininity. While
Rudd focuses on the agency of women through makeup use and
constructing a sense of self, both Rudd and Badaró show how
the function and meaning of makeup can be altered depending
on the situation. Rudd notes makeup routines women use for
work, social events, and personal time, and Badaró notes how
makeup can remain a significant part of a woman’s personal life
even if it doesn’t fit into her professional setting.
Some of the biggest changes in the makeup industry over
time have been in terms of the safety and regulation of products.
Termini and Tressler (2008) focus on how consumer awareness
of ingredient safety and the health risks that may come from
using particular ingredients has grown. The authors emphasize
how labelling products to inform consumers of what ingredients
are actually in the products they are purchasing, and noting any
potential hazards, shows a modern trend of product

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transparency. The authors also note that consumer activism has
led to calls for stricter regulations, and this shows a shift from a
passive consumer attitude to a more informed kind of consumer
that wants to see changes in industry practices. There is, of
course, still room for improvement. The authors explain that the
European Union has more ingredients banned than the US has,
and this means that there's potential to expand upon what is and
isn’t safe for consumers and what the average citizen is okay
with using to express themselves.
Throughout history, makeup has been used for a
multitude of reasons, including personal expression, promoting
one's social status, negotiating traditional gender roles, and
reflecting on societal beauty standards. From ancient to modern
times, makeup has played a role in people’s ideas of beauty and
femininity. Not only do makeup and the beauty industry play a
large role in enforcing beauty standards, but they can also aid in
squashing anxieties about the ‘deception’ of users. It can also be
used by women to construct and transform their personal
identities. Makeup remains a complex and ever-changing
industry in our lives and reflects changing societal norms and
gender roles.

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References
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Giannotta, V. (2023, April 19). Drop dead gorgeous: Beauty
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