Agora: Red Deer Polytechnic Undergraduate Journal
Volume 16:1 2025 Agora Conference Proceedings

More Harm than Good: Gender Diversity
Initiatives in Industry Work
Laura Arnusch
Despite decades of progress towards gender equality,
only 5% of the skilled trade workers in Canada are female (More
Women Consider Careers in Trades, 2023), and among the 3.9
million industrial workers in Canada, only 831,000 are women
(Statistics About Industrial Jobs, 2019). These alarming figures
highlight the stark reality of gender inequalities in today's
workforce. As a response, diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI)
initiatives aimed at increasing female employees in maledominated work environments have risen in popularity since the
early 1980’s with the passing of the Canadian Humans Right Act
(1977) and the Employment Equity Act (1986) (Hiranandani,
2012). This emphasis on gender diversity is further reflected in
the investments made by Fortune 500 companies having
collectively spent around $16 billion yearly on diversity
initiatives as of 2017 (Dover et al., 2019). Given these statistics,
it is crucial to examine the effectiveness of existing diversity
programs, particularly those promoting gender diversity in
skilled trades and industry work.

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Further research should explore how diversity initiatives
aimed at addressing gender biases in male-dominated trades can
unintentionally create negative consequences for women
including an increase in perceived incompetence (Dover et al.,
2019), backlash and resistance (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016), and a
reduced sense of belonging (Halliday et al., 2022). This essay
analyzes the interplay between managerial discretion, signalling
effects, and industry specific challenges to demonstrate the
unintended negative consequences that gender diversity
programs exert on female minorities in male-dominated
industries. Managerial discretion, the autonomy of managers in
making decisions, plays a critical role in the effectiveness of
gender diversity initiatives as it can lead to inconsistent
application, and biases affecting women’s outcomes (Kalev et
al., 2006). Moreover, fostering an inclusive work environment
where all contributions are valued as equal is essential to avoid
unintended signalling effects. This can be understood as an
occurrence where behaviours or decisions made by an
organization or its employees portray opinions or beliefs to
others. Finally, understanding the effects of contextual factors
such as industry specific challenges enables a comprehensive
examination of how managerial choices and signalling effects
contribute to adverse outcomes in gender diversity initiatives.

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Literature Review
Managerial Discretion
Managerial discretion, as previously defined, is the
freedoms and liberties that a manager may exert concerning
decisions and implementation of DEI programs within their
organization. Inconsistent applications of gender diversity
programs result in a variability of effects across different
divisions and teams, which can in turn affect opportunities and
outcomes for women. Findings by Dobbin and Kalev (2016)
support this having found in their research that when diversity
initiatives were the responsibility of the organization rather than
individual managers it was much more effective. The findings
were based on research done on more than 800 firms in the U.S.
over three decades and found that common tools used for
diversification, such as mandatory diversity training, hiring
tests, performance ratings, and grievances systems, all have
potential for failure. The article explains how these tools
implemented by managers often result in, respectfully, increased
resistance, amplified biases, failure to accurately reflect merit,
and retaliation resulting in lack of reporting. Dobbin and Kalev
(2016) propose that this failure is due to one commonality;
reliance on the ability to control the manager's behaviour.

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As a solution, they suggest using approaches that are
based on principles of engagement versus mandates to
encourage voluntary participation in diversity initiatives,
increasing contact between managers and minority groups to
foster familiarity and understanding, and social accountability to
encourage managers to act fairly and promote transparency. The
research highlights the importance of using diversification
programs that engage managers to promote a sense of
accountability towards cultivating diverse work environments
rather

than

using

command-and-control

approaches.

Specifically, it was found that by utilizing diversity initiatives
based on engagement, contact, and social accountability, there
was an increase in the representation of minorities, including
women in management positions compared to when commandand-control approaches were used. Although this research does
not directly correlate to women in skilled trades or industry
work, the concept of how managerial discretion impacts the
effectiveness of diversity initiatives is applicable. This is due to
the potential for managerial biases to be particularly prevalent in
trades as a result of strong traditional gender norms.
Applications of the three recommended principles regarding
diversity initiatives allows for the development of pro-diversity
values, increased understanding, and equitable behaviour which

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all contribute to developing a more diverse accepting work
culture for females in male-dominated work environments.
In corroboration of these findings, the literature review
by Portocarrero and Carter (2022) reviewed research that
clarifies which diversity initiatives programs work versus which
do not and also found managerial discretion to play a significant
role in the outcome of diversity initiatives. Their research found
that the colorblind process, ignoring how race and racism affect
workplace inequalities, and managerial discretion are the two
main contributing factors in the failure of diversity initiatives.
For the purposes of this paper, only the former will be discussed.
Portocarrero and Carter (2022) explain that the personal desires
and motivations of managers may skew outcomes, such as
performance evaluation scores. This example demonstrates how
managerial discretion can result in negative outcomes for
minority groups, as managers' unconscious biases and cognitive
processes can influence scores and therefore, influence one's
opportunities and potential for promotion. Overall, the study
found that direct oversight and accountability, such as the use of
oversight committees, transparency, and the use of goal setting,
are crucial for the functioning of diversity programs.
Portocarrero and Carter (2022) effectively demonstrate the
functional and dysfunctional aspects of diversification programs

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and further exemplify the role that managerial discretion has in
the adverse outcomes of these initiatives.
Signalling Effects
In addition to managerial discretion, as determined by
research, unintended signalling effects is another frequent
negative result of poorly executed diversity initiative programs.
Signalling effects are when an individual or organizations
convey opinions or information to others through their actions
and behaviours. Dover and colleagues (2020) reviewed
psychological evidence to determine if diversity initiatives have
adverse outcomes due to its implication in fairness signals,
competence signals, and inclusion signals. Specifically, fairness
signals, which is a promise of equitable treatment to all that may
result in seemingly unjust treatment to the majority group, and
signals of incompetence, which are actions or behaviours that
convey an inability or a lack of knowledge within the workplace,
will be discussed (Dover et al., 2020). Keeping managerial
discretion in mind, through examination of fairness and
competence signals, a more encompassing understanding of the
negative outcomes of DEI programs can be achieved.
Further examinations show that fairness signals generate
sentiments of being treated unjustly among non minority groups
and feelings of being treated justly in underrepresented groups

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(Dover et al., 2020). For example, Huffcutt and Roth (1998)
found that standardized interviews reduce hiring inequalities and
that unstructured interviews cause detriments for minority
groups. Interestingly, regardless of this, their research found that
individuals part of the dominant group believe the opposite is
true. Evidence indicates that the mere presence of DEI hiring,
signals to the majority group that unfair hiring practices are
present, despite this being a fallacy (Dover et al., 2020).
Therefore, as a byproduct of the pursuit of adequate
representation of minority groups, majorities groups, in this case
caucasian males, may perceive this as unfair hiring practices as
the minority groups have a perceived advantage (Dover et al.,
2020). As a result, this can contribute to majority groups being
unsupportive towards anti discrimination practices causing
further segregation and hostility directed at minority groups
within the workplace. This demonstrates how the usage of DEI
programs can have opposite effects from what is intended and
can contribute to negative outcomes for underrepresented
groups, such as females in trades. This outcome is due to the
majority of employees, caucasian males, feeling they have been
subject to unfair treatment, resulting in an exacerbation of
turmoil within the workplace.
In continuation, competence signals are when the
presence of diversity initiatives unintentionally communicate

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that underrepresented groups need help in order to succeed
within the organization (Leslie, 2018). This may include women
in skilled trades and industry work being perceived as needing
assistance or additional support to have a successful career
within male-dominated fields. To further this point, Dover and
colleagues (2020) explain how experiments have shown that
“women and minorities hired under an affirmative action
rationale are subject to [being] viewed as less qualified and as
less competent than those hired in the absence of such a
rationale” (p. 167). Unequivocally, this alludes to diversity
hiring practices creating perceptions that the best or most
equipped candidate is not being given the same opportunities as
minority groups. Consequently, this perpetuates the irrationality
that the minority group is less qualified or undeserving in
comparison to the dominant group. This was demonstrated in
research by Heilman and others (1992) which found that
affirmative action status has negative consequences on female
hires even when they were not perceived as less equipped than
male counterparts. This conclusion supports Dover and
colleagues (2020) claims that diversification programs, such as
hiring practices centered on DEI, contribute to competence
signals, which indicate affirmative action status. Ergo, this
manifests into questioning the competence and skills of
minorities, such as females in industry and trade work. This

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outcome can further contribute to a slew of negative effects for
minority groups as perceived lack of ability perpetuates
stereotypes (Leslie, 2018).
In summary, the research clearly demonstrates how DEI
programs can foster signals, such as fairness and competence,
that create negative outcomes for minority groups. Moreover,
Dover and colleagues (2020) literature review illuminates how
the interaction effect between managerial discretion and
signalling effects can amplify adverse outcomes for minority
groups. To explain,

managerial discretion

significantly

influences the effectiveness of diversity initiatives due to biased
opinions and inconsistent applications of DEI programs (Dobbin
& Kalev, 2016), which can inadvertently amplify signals of
fairness

or

incompetence

amongst

minority

groups.

Understanding this interaction effect illustrates organizational
challenges, but to gain a more complete understanding of gender
diversity initiatives, exploration of contextual factors, such as
industry specific challenges, is required.
Contextual Factors
Contextual factors are elements specific to an industry
that impact opportunities, experiences, and outcomes for
individuals in that environment. In this context, this includes
industry specific challenges such as the unique obstacles females

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face in male-dominated fields. This encompasses strong gender
norms, the struggle for a sense of belonging, and the negative
outcomes associated with these challenges, including mental
health risks and lack of job satisfaction (Rubin et al., 2019).
Through an understanding of these unique challenges, the
severity of the adverse outcomes caused by managerial
discretion and signalling effects in gender diversity initiatives
can be better appreciated.
Research completed by Rubin and others (2019) found
that “sense of belonging mediated the associations between
organizational sexism and both mental health and job
satisfaction. In addition, sense of belonging mediated the
association between interpersonal sexism and mental health” (p.
278). To fully comprehend this, it should be noted that
organizational sexism refers to inequalities caused by the
organization, such as pay disparities, and that interpersonal
sexism is related to sexist behaviour committed by individuals
within the organization, such as inappropriate jokes (Rubin et
al., 2019). In sum, Rubin and colleagues’s (2019) research found
that both forms of sexism are related to a poorer sense of
belonging within the workplace, which in turn is correlated with
adverse mental health outcomes and reduced job satisfaction for
minority groups. This was determined by means of confirmatory
study where 190 women from a large Australian trade union, that

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primarily employs men, completed online surveys which
measured mental health, job satisfaction, sense of belonging,
and sexism (Rubin et al., 2019). Additionally, it should be noted
that the research sought to determine if women’s perceived
higher levels of femininity increased sexism, therefore
modulating sense of belonging and associated adverse
outcomes. However, analysis revealed that femininity did not
associate significantly with sexism or any of the related
outcomes. Subsequently, solely sense of belonging, job
satisfaction, and mental health will be discussed in further detail.
It was found that sexism causes a reduced sense of
belonging due to female minorities experiencing rejection,
ostracism, and bullying from male coworkers (Richman &
Leary, 2009). Moreover, feelings of isolation and loneliness
caused by ostracism reduces sense of belonging and has negative
consequences on women’s job satisfaction and mental health
(Mellor et al., 2008). As explained by Richman and Leary (2009)
in their article which proposed a new framework for
understanding rejection, individuals' physical and psychological
well-being in addition to behaviours, motives, emotions, and
thoughts is highly impacted by others' reactions. Rejection is
associated with overall negative affect, such as feelings of
sadness, and anger to name a couple, but the primary correlated
emotion is “hurt feelings” (Richman & Leary, 2009). “Hurt

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feelings” is associated with a multitude of negative outcomes
including feelings of being unwanted or devalued, feelings of
physical pain, and a potential for emotional numbness. In
consideration of the multiple negative outcomes of rejection, the
association between reduced sense of belonging, reduced job
satisfaction and mental health can be better understood. With
this awareness of the many negative outcomes that industry
specific contextual factors have on female minorities, the
potential disadvantages of DEI hiring, such as increased
workplace sexism caused by managerial discretion and
signalling effects, need to be more critically evaluated.
In summary, the literature demonstrates various ways in
which diversity initiative programs can have negative effects on
minority groups. First, managerial discretion was shown to
increase resistance and amplify biases (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016)
as well as cause adverse outcomes and limit opportunities
(Portocarrero & Carter, 2022). Second, unintended signalling
effects such as fairness signals, which is equitable treatment to
the minority group that is perceived as unfair to the majority
group, and competence signals, which convey the minority
group is lacking or incompetent, were shown to be an unintended
result of DEI initiatives (Dover et al., 2020). Moreover,
managerial discretion was shown to amplify signalling effects,
as biased DEI applications can exacerbate fairness and

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competence signals, worsening outcomes for minorities. Third,
contextual factors, such as workplace sexism, were shown to
cause poor sense of belonging, reduced job satisfaction, and
mental health decline in female minorities in industry trade work
(Rubin et al., 2019). Additionally, rejection which is associated
with a low sense of belonging was demonstrated to have various
physical, mental, and emotional negative effects (Richman &
Leary, 2009). In consideration of the detrimental effects of
contextual factors on minority groups, and to the amplification
of these harms through managerial discretion and signalling
effects, it is crucial to reexamine diversity initiative programs to
ensure they fulfill their intended purpose.
Discussion
Given the research, further investigation is warranted to
determine if remodelling DEI initiatives may result in better
outcomes for minority groups. Based on the literature,
recommendations for improving DEI programs include using
approaches that are based on principles of engagement,
increasing contact between managers and minority groups,
promoting social accountability (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016), and
use of oversight committees (Portocarrero & Carter, 2022). In
consideration of these findings, future research should examine
the potential benefits for a type of “middle man”, such as an

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inclusion coordinator to help foster relationships between
individuals in minority groups and management. This solution
would aid communication by creating a middle ground and
would promote community and understanding within the
workplace aligning with the proposed suggestion of Dobbin and
Kalev (2016). This solution has potential to mitigate negative
effects as this would allow minorities to feel they have a safe
space to report discrimination from coworkers or management,
therefore aiding in controlling the effects of both managerial
discretion and signalling effects. Additionally, this form of
position would allow for direct oversight of DEI programs
which would facilitate quick identification and mitigation of
biased behaviors to help diminish negative outcomes
(Portocarrero & Carter, 2022). Moreover, by developing a
relationship between the proposed inclusion coordinator and
minority groups, signs of rejection and decreased job
satisfaction can more easily be noticed, desirably preventing
negative outcomes that are the result of contextual factors such
as mental health decline and decreased job satisfaction.
Addressing Limitations
Limitations do exist as a result of gaps in the literature.
It should be noted that geographical limitations, as a result of all
the reviewed research having taken place in westernized

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countries, may cause the findings to not be applicable in lower
socioeconomic countries. Furthermore, the experimental
research by Huffcutt and Roth (1998) and Heilman and others
(1992) both have limitations due to their reliance on perceptions;
hence, more research is needed to fully grasp real-worldimplications. Additionally, other limitations are present, such as
a lack of direct research regarding DEI initiatives and women’s
outcomes in skilled trades and industry work. Parallels have
been drawn from other research on female minority groups to
reach conclusions, but the unique characteristics of skilled trade
and industry work may limit the generalizability of these
insights.
Due to the gaps in the literature, future research should
investigate the effects of DEI initiatives on female minorities in
industry workplaces. Experimental research comparing matched
workplaces with and without a DEI program would allow for a
clear understanding of the impacts on female minorities in
industry work. Specifically, levels of perceived fairness,
equality, and judgement within the workplace of both majority
and minority groups should be analyzed. This would determine
if the presence of DEI initiatives exacerbates issues such as
managerial discretion, fairness signals, and competence signals.
As a result of measuring these levels amongst both gender
groups it can be determined how the presence of DEI programs

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impact the workplace atmosphere. Additionally, levels of
belonging, depression, and job satisfaction amongst minorities
should be analyzed. This would determine if the presence of DEI
initiatives significantly affects the well-being of individuals in
minority groups. In summary, this research would determine
how DEI programs impact workplace atmosphere and the wellbeing of female minorities. By doing this research, the true value
of DEI initiatives within industry workplaces may be uncovered
to allow for a better understanding of how to foster positive work
experiences for female minorities.
Conclusion
In conclusion, by understanding the impacts of
managerial discretion, signalling effects, and industry specific
challenges that female minorities in male-dominated work face,
the negative outcomes of diversity, equity, and inclusion
initiatives need to be more heavily scrutinized. A multitude of
negative outcomes for female minority groups were presented in
this paper, clearly outlining the negative impacts of DEI
initiatives. Therefore, moving forward, cooperation should not
only attempt to create safe spaces that encourage dialogue
among minorities but should focus on creating an atmosphere
where all are treated equally. DEI initiatives must be framed in
a manner that does not put any group above another but rather

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treats everyone equally as a means of minimizing segregation
and limiting backlash and adverse outcomes for females in maledominated work.

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