BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

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Being Kind to Yourself: Investigating the Effects of a Brief Self-Compassion
Intervention on Self-Oriented Perfectionism in Post-Secondary Students
Hannah Antonishyn, BSc., Shannah Engert, Ph.D. Candidate, Stephen B. R. E. Brown, Ph.D.
Abstract
Perfectionism is prevalent among post-secondary students and is often associated with
psychological distress, reduced self-efficacy, and diminished well-being. Self-compassion
includes being kind to oneself in the same way one might be compassionate toward a friend.
However, perfectionists often face challenges in adopting self-compassionate practices. The
current project aimed to investigate the effects of a five-week self-compassion practice,
completed multiple times per week, on self-oriented perfectionism, academic self-efficacy,
and psychological well-being among post-secondary students (N = 55). Analyses of the
effectiveness of the intervention revealed that the brief self-compassion intervention had
significant impacts on enhancing self-compassion, academic self-efficacy, and well-being,
and reducing self-oriented perfectionism. Implications of these findings suggest that a brief
self-compassion intervention demonstrates similar effects to formal self-compassion
interventions, highlighting the potential benefits of employing an accessible, time-efficient
self-compassion practice on post-secondary student well-being.
Keywords: self-compassion; self-oriented perfectionism; intervention; well-being; academic
self-efficacy; students

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Being Kind to Yourself: Investigating the Effects of a Brief Self-Compassion
Intervention on Self-Oriented Perfectionism in Post-Secondary Students
Scholars describe perfectionism as the tendency to have exceptionally high standards
and being overly critical when these standards are not met (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Recent
research has shown a surge in perfectionism, primarily in student populations, over the last
three decades (Curran & Hill, 2019). The authors suggest this surge in perfectionism is related
to the pressures young adults face in terms of achieving their academic and career goals with
these pressures stemming from feeling the need to be successful in their endeavours.
Additionally, for students who possess high standards in regard to their academics,
experiencing barriers that hinder the ability to achieve these standards can result in feelings of
psychological distress and burnout (Deng et al., 2022). These feelings often perpetuate the
negative feelings associated with not meeting expectations imposed upon oneself or from
others, which are behaviors associated with perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Postsecondary students who are high in maladaptive perfectionism tend to have lower academic
self-efficacy (Yao, 2009), which is associated with experiencing poorer mental health
outcomes (Cao & Lui, 2024; Hitches et al., 2022; Safarzaie et al., 2022). Considering that
post-secondary students are often overwhelmed with course work, assignments, and other
responsibilities (Pitt et al., 2017), finding ways to establish balance can be a challenge. With
this in mind, it is important to support post-secondary students’ well-being and foster selfkindness despite the stressors of student life. The current study aimed to discover how a brief
self-compassion intervention impacts self-compassion through a short, five-minute a day
practice, while also examining its role in supporting students’ academic self-efficacy, wellbeing, and reducing maladaptive perfectionism.

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Perfectionism
Hewitt and Flett (1991) developed the Multidimensional Model of Perfectionism that
identifies three categories of perfectionistic behaviour, which are categorized based on the
direction of the perfectionistic expectation (i.e., toward the self, others, or expectations from
others). Self-oriented perfectionism describes those who place unrealistic standards on
themselves and are highly critical of their own performance. This element of perfectionism is
believed to be driven by intrinsic motivations to strive towards perfection while also avoiding
failure and is often associated with significant psychological distress involving increased
levels of anxiety, depression, and eating disorders (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Similarly, otheroriented perfectionism describes individuals who place unrealistic standards on other people
rather than the self and are highly critical of the performances of others. This element is
associated with holding negative feelings towards others, resulting in increases in loneliness
and interpersonal relationship problems (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Lastly, socially prescribed
perfectionism describes individuals who possess a high concern with meeting the standards
and expectations imposed by others, resulting in feeling external pressures to enact perfection.
Much like self-oriented perfectionism, this element is also associated with psychological
distress involving anger, anxiety, and depression (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).
Maladaptive and Adaptive Perfectionism
Perfectionism has both adaptive and maladaptive dimensions. Adaptive perfectionism
is described as the ‘healthy’ form of perfectionism as it involves striving for high standards,
but it is associated with feeling content with the efforts involved in achieving those standards
(Alanna et al., 2022). In contrast, maladaptive perfectionism is described as ‘unhealthy’
perfectionism as it involves striving for high standards, but feeling as though these standards
will never be met (Alanna et al., 2022). Research has shown that individuals who portray
maladaptive perfectionist behaviours often experience more negative outcomes in comparison

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to adaptive perfectionists or non-perfectionists (Alanna et al., 2022). These negative outcomes
can be related to increases in psychological distress (Alanna et al., 2022; Koutra et al., 2023;
Sher et al., 2023; Tan, 2023; Tobin & Dunkley, 2021; Molnar et al., 2019), procrastination
(Yao, 2009), and academic burnout (Fong & Loi, 2016). Maladaptive perfectionism has also
shown to be associated with decreases in academic self-efficacy (Chemers et al., 2001; Yao,
2009), self-esteem (Park & Jeong, 2015), and physical well-being (Molnar et al., 2019) in
students. In contrast, adaptive perfectionism is often associated with positive mental health
(Alanna et al., 2022). Alanna and colleagues (2022) suggest this association can be attributed
to the adaptivity element involved with this type of perfectionism, more so than the
perfectionistic behaviours of adaptive perfectionism. Additionally, adaptive forms of selforiented perfectionism can be beneficial for post-secondary students, particularly when it
comes to involvement and engagement in their academics (Parveen & Khan, 2024). These
findings are likely attributed to the natural desire to succeed and meet personal goals relating
to academics or perceiving academic related tasks as ‘challenges’ rather than ‘stressors’
(Hitches et al., 2022). These results highlight how, although perfectionism can result in
negative outcomes related to well-being, promoting more positive and adaptive approaches to
perfectionism can be beneficial in student populations, particularly in regard to their
psychological well-being (Koutra et al., 2023).
Perfectionism is often considered a stable personality trait that is reluctant to change,
but various intervention methods have been found to significantly decrease maladaptive
perfectionism (Arana et al., 2017; Lui, S. et al., 2023; Visvalingam et al., 2022; Woodfin et
al., 2021). A study conducted by Arana et al. (2017), for example, utilized cognitive
behavioral approaches in an attempt to reduce perfectionistic concerns in students through a
five-week intervention program. The results found the intervention was able to significantly
reduce maladaptive perfectionism in participants, as well as decrease other distressing

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symptoms such as anxiety and depression. Similar results were found in a two-hour online
intervention method that implemented ways to increase mindfulness and self-compassion in
university students (Visvalingam et al., 2022). These findings suggest that, although
perfectionism is frequently considered difficult to shift, recent intervention methods indicate
otherwise. Such approaches show promise for reducing maladaptive trait perfectionism across
a range of demographics.
Self-Compassion
The concept of self-compassion is derived from the idea of compassion, which
involves approaching the suffering of others in an accepting, non-judgmental way that allows
the receiving person’s suffering to be acknowledged and understood (Neff, 2003a). In relation
to this, Neff (2003a) describes self-compassion as a process that involves approaching and
bringing awareness to one’s own suffering in such a way that promotes kindness and
understanding. Self-compassion also includes the idea that suffering and hardship is
embedded in the human experience and should be perceived in a way that discourages the
belief that these experiences are isolating. Neff’s (2003a) model of self-compassion consists
of three main concepts that relate to an individual’s approach towards experiences of
suffering or hardship: self-kindness, mindfulness, and common humanity. The element of
self-kindness refers to the importance of being kind and understanding of one’s hardships
rather than being harsh and engaging in unnecessary self-criticism. Mindfulness refers to
being aware of one’s negative emotions that arise from experiences of failure or hardship, but
not over-identifying with them. Lastly, common humanity consists of the idea that
individuals’ struggles are part of the human experience and should not be perceived as
isolating. Neff (2003a) highlights how these three components are interconnected with one
another, despite each element being conceptually different from one another; practicing one
facet by itself ultimately leads to practicing the others indirectly.

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Similar to perfectionism, self-compassion can be measured in both trait and state form
(Svendsen et al., 2016). Trait self-compassion can be changed over time, typically through the
consistent use of various self-compassion-based practices. For example, research has
demonstrated that people can learn to be more compassionate to themselves by practicing
self-compassion-related activities such as guided meditations (Lui, C. et al., 2023), attending
workshops (Ko et al., 2018), through university courses (Bearden et al., 2024), in selfcompassion practice groups (Smeets et al., 2014), and with journaling practices (Mckay et al.,
2024). Importantly, previous studies, such as the ones mentioned, have demonstrated that it is
possible to enhance compassion for the self, specifically in post-secondary student
populations (Bearden et al., 2024; Ko et al., 2018; Lui, S. et al., 2023; Mckay et al., 2024;
Smeets et al., 2014; Ward & Wheaton, 2022). Put differently, it is indeed possible to facilitate
change wherein individuals learn to become more self-compassionate, suggesting that selfcompassion is not just a static trait but rather something that can be enhanced to perhaps even
improve overall well-being.
Self-Compassion and Perfectionism
People may be motivated to increase their self-compassion because self-compassion is
associated with a variety of outcomes related to psychosocial well-being (e.g., Bag et al.,
2021; Ferrari et al., 2019; Han & Kim, 2023; Macbeth & Gumley, 2012; McKay & Walker,
2021; Zessin et al., 2015). More specifically, self-compassion has associations with
perfectionism: research has found a significant relationship between self-compassion and
maladaptive perfectionism on the effects of psychological well-being in post-secondary
students. These relationships demonstrate how individuals who exhibit more maladaptive
perfectionist behaviors, such as characteristics related to self-oriented perfectionism, often
report being less self-compassionate and more anxious and depressed (Alanna et al., 2022;
Biskas et al., 2022; Tan, 2023; Tobin & Dunkley, 2021; Sher et al., 2023). In relation to other

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findings, these negative mental health outcomes can be attributed to low levels of selfcompassion in individuals with high maladaptive perfectionist behaviours (Biskas et al., 2022;
Sher et al., 2023; Tobin & Dunkley, 2021), which has been found to be especially true in
post-secondary student populations (Tan, 2023). Research suggests that individuals who
exhibit more maladaptive characteristics of perfectionism tend to possess more negative
views of self-compassion, including viewing those who practice self-compassion in a more
negative light (Biskas et al., 2022). Put differently, those high in maladaptive perfectionism
do not view the practice of being compassionate with oneself favourably. Based on their
findings, Sher and colleagues (2023) found that perfectionists, specifically those who exhibit
more maladaptive characteristics in perfectionism, were less likely to respond to their
hardships with self-compassion as they possessed stronger fears of self-compassion. Likely
due to the self-critical nature of perfectionism, these fears of self-compassion stem from a
lack of confidence in one’s own abilities to be self-compassionate (Biskas et al., 2022), which
creates barriers to receiving the benefits of practicing self-compassion.
Academic Self-Efficacy and Perfectionism
In student populations, high rates of perfectionism are a concern, given its negative
association with academic self-efficacy (Damian et al., 2016). Academic self-efficacy is based
upon the model outlined by Bandura (1997) which describes self-efficacy as “the belief in
one’s capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to produce given
attainments” (p. 3). Thus, academic self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to
accomplish academic-related tasks (Chemers et al., 2001). Students who exhibit more
maladaptive perfectionist behaviours tend to have lower levels of academic self-efficacy
compared to students who demonstrate more adaptive perfectionism (Yao, 2009). Yao (2009)
suggests low levels of academic self-efficacy in students who are high in maladaptive
perfectionism can be attributed to the pressures exerted by high standards that are imposed

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upon oneself, which reflect the characteristics that closely align with self-oriented
perfectionism. Possessing high concern about meeting these standards or personal goals is
associated with a lack of confidence in abilities to accomplish those tasks, thus decreasing
academic self-efficacy. (Yao, 2009). Low academic self-efficacy has shown to be associated
with poorer self-esteem (Cao & Lui, 2024) and academic performance (Hitches et al., 2022),
as well as burnout and higher stress, particularly stress related to academic tasks (Hitches et
al., 2022; Safarzaie et al., 2022). Additionally, the results of a recent study suggest that selforiented perfectionism is associated with lower academic self-efficacy in post-secondary
students (Hawkins & Mackinnon, 2024). These negative mental health outcomes highlight
how students struggle to achieve their academic goals and be successful in their academic
careers due to setting exceptionally high standards on oneself.
Psychological Distress and Perfectionism
Pursuing a post-secondary education involves hard work and dedication from students.
With this, the pressure exerted onto students to be successful in their academic careers often
leads to students experiencing immense levels of distress (Acharya, 2018; Saleh et al., 2017).
Considering that perfectionism is commonly found amongst student populations (Curran &
Hill, 2019), the impacts of setting exceptionally high standards can amplify these distressing
feelings, leading to extreme adverse mental health effects. Maladaptive forms of
perfectionism have been found to be linked with higher levels of psychological distress in
post-secondary students, specifically academic burnout (Fong & Loi, 2016), anxiety,
depression, and stress (Koutra et al., 2023; Tobin & Dunkley, 2021; With et al., 2024). These
psychological distress symptoms are found to be associated with maladaptive perfectionists
who score low on self-compassion measures, thus increasing psychological distress (Koutra et
al., 2023; Tobin & Dunkley, 2021). Conversely, the results from Koutra and colleagues
(2023) found adaptive perfectionism to be negatively associated with psychological distress.

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This relationship was found to be mediated by implementing a more self-compassionate
attitude with oneself and, as a result, reduced the risk of experiencing psychological distress.
Self-Compassion and Well-Being
Self-compassion has shown to exhibit numerous benefits relating to positive mental
health when practiced (Bluth & Neff, 2018). In relation to student populations, practicing
self-compassion has shown to have significant effects on perfectionism (Bearden et al., 2024),
academic self-efficacy (Khodapana & Tamannaeifar, 2022; Manavipour & Saeedian, 2016;
Martin et al., 2019; Yao, 2009), and psychological well-being (Fong & Loi, 2016; Yao,
2009). In relation to students who possessed high levels of perfectionism, practicing selfcompassion has shown to decrease maladaptive behaviours related to perfectionism (Alanna
et al., 2022; Bearden et al., 2024). Research by Biskas and colleagues (2022) highlighted how
individuals who were more open and positive about approaching one’s suffering with selfcompassion were more likely to respond to their future suffering with self-compassion and
had an easier time enacting self-compassion. Additionally, studies have found that students
who demonstrated high levels of self-compassion towards their academics were more likely to
be more academically self-efficacious (Khodapana & Tamannaeifar, 2022; Manavipour &
Saeedian, 2016; Martin et al., 2019; Yao, 2009), which also yielded higher levels of happiness
and positive mental health outcomes (Yao, 2009). Research has also highlighted the
mediating effects of self-compassion on psychological distress in post-secondary students
(Fong & Loi, 2016). Fong and Loi (2016) discovered that high levels of self-compassion were
related to low levels of psychological distress, and that self-compassion mediated this
relationship.
Self-Compassion Intervention Strategies
As mentioned previously, self-compassion intervention strategies, administered in
varying forms, have shown to elicit significant increases in self-compassion in participants

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(Bearden et al., 2024; Ko et al., 2018; Lui, S. et al., 2023; Mckay et al., 2024; Smeets et al.,
2014; Ward & Wheaton, 2022). Not only do these interventions promote self-compassion in
participants, but they have shown to have positive impacts on other aspects such as
perfectionism, academic self-efficacy, and well-being, particularly in student populations.
Previous studies have shown intervention strategies that implement self-compassion practices
significantly reduce maladaptive perfectionism in students, which in turn increases
psychological well-being and academic self-efficacy (Bearden et al., 2024; Bluth &
Eisenlohr-Moul, 2017; Dundas et al., 2017; Lui, S. et al., 2023). These interventions in
students have shown to produce significant decreases in behaviours relating to maladaptive
perfectionism, specifically self-oriented perfectionism (Bearden et al., 2024), as well as
significant increases in mental health outcomes (Bearden et al., 2024) and self-efficacy
(Dundas et al., 2017). Self-compassion interventions that have yielded significant reductions
in perfectionism (Bearden et al., 2024), increases in mental health outcomes (Bluth &
Eisenlohr-Moul, 2017; Dundas et al., 2017) and self-efficacy in students have typically been
eight weeks in length (Bearden et al., 2024; Bluth & Eisenlohr-Moul, 2017), but significant
results have been found in interventions in as little as two weeks (Dundas et al., 2017). During
the eight-week interventions, participants completed an average of one hour and 45 minutes
of self-compassion per week. Additionally, the two-week intervention involved participants
completed three 90-minute sessions, totalling 4.5 hours of self-compassion completed during
the study. Interestingly, a study that conducted an online single-session intervention that
implemented self-compassion techniques did not find significant reductions in maladaptive
perfectionism in post-secondary students (Ward & Wheaton, 2022), which suggests
consistently practicing self-compassion over an extended period of time is crucial to see
significant changes in maladaptive forms of perfectionism.

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A recent study aimed to investigate the effectiveness a four-week self-compassion
intervention had on college students with imposter syndrome, while also measuring
maladaptive perfectionism and psychological distress (Lui, S. et al., 2023). Imposter
syndrome involves having feelings of self-doubt, especially in terms of intellectual and
academic abilities (Pákozdy et al., 2023). Students who report being high in imposter
syndrome have shown to have low levels of self-efficacy and well-being, and high levels of
perfectionism (Pákozdy et al., 2023). In their study, Lui, S. and colleagues (2023) highlighted
the similarities in behaviours between imposter phenomenon and maladaptive perfectionism,
which suggests reducing the effects of imposter phenomenon using self-compassion would
also reduce maladaptive perfectionist behaviours and psychological distress in students. This
intervention involved participants completing approximately 45 minutes of self-compassion
each week through the usage of online self-compassion modules. The results found that the
self-compassion modules significantly reduced imposter syndrome levels within participants
in the intervention group, as well as showed significant reductions in maladaptive
perfectionism. The significant reductions found within this study suggest that completing selfcompassion for less amount of time, as compared to other interventions that involve more
intensive self-compassion practices (Bearden et al., 2024; Bluth & Eisenlohr-Moul, 2017),
can yield similar results.
The Present Study
The purpose of the current study was to determine whether completing a five-minute
audio self-compassion practice multiple times a week would impact self-oriented
perfectionism, academic self-efficacy, and psychological well-being in post-secondary
students. Specifically, the current study aimed to explore whether a brief and accessible daily
self-compassion practice yielded changes in the target variables. The question this study
aimed to investigate was how completing self-compassion for approximately five minutes a

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day impacted self-oriented perfectionism in participants, and whether this brief intervention
had beneficial impacts on self-reported scores of self-compassion, academic self-efficacy, and
psychological well-being. It was hypothesized that the brief self-compassion intervention
would show decreases in self-oriented perfectionism, and increases in self-compassion,
academic self-efficacy, and psychological well-being in participants. Differences in these
measures were distinguished between the data collected from the pre- and post-test surveys.
Method
Participants
The participant sample consisted of undergraduate students enrolled in a first-year
psychology course at Red Deer Polytechnic. A total of 107 students initially expressed
interest in participating in the study, and 73 participants completed both surveys to be
included as part of the final analysis. In the intervention sample (n = 41), a total of eight
participant responses were removed. Responses were removed due to incompletion (n = 2),
completing the incorrectly assigned survey (n = 1), and reporting extensive mindfulness
practice (n = 1). Participants who reported existing ‘extensive mindfulness practice’ were
removed as this study intended to explore the impacts of introducing a mindfulness-based
practice (i.e., self-compassion) to a sample of undergraduate students who were considered to
be inexperienced with this practice. Four responses were also excluded from the MANOVA
analysis as a difference score was not computed due to not answering all questions on the
specific scales in the survey. Similarly, ten responses were excluded from the control group (n
= 32) due to incompletion (n = 1), practicing extensive mindfulness (n = 8), and a lack of
computed difference score (n = 1). The final data consisted of 55 responses between the
intervention (n = 33) and control (n = 22) conditions. Of the entire sample (N = 55),
descriptive statistics indicated that the sample was composed of primarily first year students

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(n = 49) who were Caucasian (n = 43) and female (n = 46), which was representative of the
student population at RDP. The mean age of participants in the experimental and control
conditions were 22.53 years (n = 32, SD = 7.74) and 24.33 years (n = 21, SD = 7.74),
respectively. Additional participant demographics are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1
Participant Demographics at Post-Test
Baseline
characteristics

Intervention
n

%

Control
n

Full Sample
%

n

%

Gender
Female
31
83.8
15
65.2
46
83.6
Male
2
5.4
6
26.1
8
14.5
LGBTQ+
3
8.1
1
4.3
4
7.3
Prefer not to say
1
2.7
1
4.3
2
3.6
1
Ethnicity
Caucasian2, 3
28
75.5
15
65.2
43
78.2
Black
2
1
5.4
4.3
3
5.5
Asian
2
3
5.4
13.0
5
9.1
2, 3
Indigenous
4
7
10.8
30.4
11
20.0
3
Hispanic/Latinx
0
0
1
4.3
1
1.8
Mixed
1
1
2.7
4.3
2
3.6
Prefer not to say
0
2
5.4
0
2
3.6
Year of Study
First Year
32
88.9
17
73.9
49
89.1
Second Year
2
5.6
4
14.4
6
10.9
Third Year
2
2
5.6
8.7
4
7.3
1
Notes. One participant response was removed from analysis in the intervention (n = 36)
2
One participant in the intervention identified as Caucasian and Indigenous
3
One participant in the control condition identified as Caucasian, Indigenous, and
Hispanic, and three identified as Caucasian and Indigenous
Procedure
After obtaining ethics approval from the Red Deer Polytechnic Research Ethics Board,
participants were notified of the study through recruitment materials describing the
opportunity to participate in a self-compassion-based research study for students enrolled in
an introductory level psychology course during the winter 2025 semester. The researchers

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also made appearances in various classes to discuss the details of the project and answer any
questions potential participants may have had regarding their participation. Those who were
interested in participating were instructed to contact the co-researcher via email by a specified
date, providing their instructor’s name and their course and section. Each class was randomly
assigned to be the intervention and control groups, thus allocating participants to the
designated condition based on which class they were enrolled in. Interested participants were
sent an email containing the appropriate pre-test survey, as assigned based on their course
section. The pre-test survey, as well as the post-test survey, also contained an informed
consent form that participants were required to read before proceeding to the survey. They
were instructed to complete this survey by a specified date before they could continue
participation in the project; those who did not complete the pre-test survey in either condition
were not sent additional project resources.
For five weeks, participants assigned to the intervention condition were asked to
complete a self-guided audio practice that was approximately five minutes in length. At the
beginning of each week, a survey link containing a new self-compassion practice was sent to
participants via their RDP email. Participants completed a new self-compassion practice each
week to promote ongoing engagement; all self-compassion practices were similar in length
(ranging from 4-8 minutes each). With this, participants were asked to aim to complete the
practice approximately five times throughout the week. At the end of each week, participants
were sent a survey link and were asked to record how many times they completed a guided
audio self-compassion practice. Participants were encouraged to honestly report their weekly
practices for the accuracy of data collection, and informed that there would be no penalties for
completing fewer than five days of self-compassion practice. After the five-week period, a
post-test survey was sent to participants in both the intervention and control group. As

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compensation, participants were eligible to receive up to a two percent bonus in their class for
each survey they completed (one percent for the pre-test and one percent for the post-test).
Measures
Self-Compassion Scale (SCS)
The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003b) assesses levels of self-compassion in
the form of three bimodal components: being kind to oneself (as opposed to self-criticism),
recognizing one’s ‘common humanity’ (as opposed to feelings of isolation), and mindfulness
(an awareness of one’s painful emotions as opposed to overidentification; Neff, 2003a). The
SCS is made up of 26 items which include items such as, ‘I’m kind to myself when I am
experiencing suffering.’ Participants responded to each item using a five-point Likert scale (1
= almost never, 5 = almost always), aligning their responses with the option that best reflects
their experiences. The scale included six subscales that pertained to the three components of
self-compassion in addition to a total self-compassion score. Total average scores on all six
subscales of this measure ranged from 1-5, with higher scores indicating greater selfcompassion. Chronbach’s α values of the total scale in the current study suggested high
internal reliability and consistency between the experimental (α = .92) and the control group
(α = .96)
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MDPS)
The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) is a 45-item scale
that is comprised of three subscales that measure socially prescribed perfectionism, otheroriented perfectionism, and self-oriented perfectionism (e.g. ‘One of my goals is to be perfect
in everything that I do’); each subscale consisted of 15 statements. Participants were asked to
respond to each statement by selecting the option they felt best reflected their experiences (1
= strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). For this particular study, the self-oriented
perfectionism subscale of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale was used. The scores for

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each subscale ranged from 15-105 with higher scores indicating higher levels of
perfectionism. In this case, higher scores on the self-oriented perfectionism subscale would
indicate higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism. Chronbach’s α values from the selforiented perfectionism subscale indicated this scale demonstrated high internal consistency
and reliability between the experimental (α = .90) and the control group (α = .91).
Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES)
The Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (Chemers et al., 2001) is a nine-item scale that
evaluates one’s experiences in various academic tasks. Statements such as ‘I am a very good
student’ and ‘I usually do very well in school and at academic tasks’ were included in this
scale. Participants were asked to rate how true each statement is to them on a 7-point Likert
scale (1 = very untrue, 7 = very true). Total scores for this measure ranged from 10-63 with
high scores indicating high levels of academic self-efficacy. Chronbach’s α values from this
scale showcased high internal consistency and reliability between the experimental (α = .90)
and control conditions (α = .92).
Brief Inventory of Thriving (BIT)
The Brief Inventory of Thriving (BIT; Su et al., 2014) is a condensed 10-item scale of
the 54-item Comprehensive Inventory of Thriving (CIT) that aims to measure individuals’
psychological well-being. Statements such as ‘I can succeed if I put my mind to it’ and ‘What
I do in life is valuable and worthwhile’ were used to gauge a general understanding of an
individual’s level of ‘thriving’. Participants responded to each item by selecting the answer
that best reflected their personal experience (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Total
scores for this measure ranged from 10-50 with higher scores of this scale reflecting high
levels of thriving. The reported Chronbach’s α values for this scale in the current study
demonstrated high internal reliability and consistency between the experimental (α = .91) and
control group (α = .88).

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Self-Guided Audio Self-Compassion Practices
Dr. Kristen Neff’s self-compassion website includes pre-recorded guided audio selfcompassion practices that were implemented in this study. The chosen guided selfcompassion practices were: the ‘General Self-Compassion Break,’ which focuses on using the
three components of self-compassion to address a current struggle, the ‘Tender SelfCompassion Break,’ which helps manage difficult emotions by practicing self-kindness, the
‘Providing Self-Compassion Break,’ which helps one focus on what they need to be fulfilled
and happy, the ‘Motivating Self-Compassion Break,’ which promotes motivation towards
reaching a goal or making a change, and the ‘Protective Self-Compassion Break,’ which
focuses on using bravery to speak up, set boundaries, and/or protect oneself. Each week of the
study used a different guided self-compassion practice (see Appendix D).
Open-Ended and Demographic Questions
In the post-test survey for the intervention group, open-ended questions were included
to evaluate the experiences of participants with completing self-compassion practices, and to
assess their likelihood of continuing self-compassion after the intervention was complete.
Additional demographic questions were also included in the post-test survey.
Results
Weekly Self-Compassion Practice Completions
During the five-week intervention, participants in the experimental group reported
completing, on average, approximately three self-compassion practices a week (Table 2).
With this, participants completed between 15-25 minutes of self-compassion each week,
depending on the length of the practice for that week. Participant attrition was evident
throughout the intervention with Week 4 having the lowest number of participant responses.

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

18

Week 3 demonstrated the highest mean number of self-compassion practices completed
throughout the intervention.
Table 2
Average Number of Self-Compassion Practices Completed During the Intervention
Length of practice
(mins)

n

Week 1

Mean number of
practices completed
(SD)
3.04 (1.26)

5:13

46

Week 2

3.10 (1.21)

4:39

39

Week 3

3.90 (1.12)

6:46

30

Week 4

2.96 (1.85)

7:07

27

Week 5

3.30 (1.72)

8:28

33

Note. The RDP reading break occurred during Week 4, which may explain why attrition was
the lowest during this week of the intervention.
Repeated-Samples t-Tests
Repeated-samples t-tests were used to analyze differences in mean pre- and post-test
scores in each of the four target variables between the experimental and control groups.
Analyses revealed that the experimental group demonstrated significant increases in selfcompassion, academic self-efficacy, and well-being at post-test relative to pre-test means. The
experimental group was also significantly lower in self-oriented perfectionism at the post-test
compared to the pre-test. In contrast, the control group demonstrated no significant
differences in self-compassion, academic self-efficacy, or self-oriented perfectionism between
pre-test and post-test mean scores. Interestingly, well-being significantly increased in the
control group at the post-test coInterestingly, well-being significantly increased in the control
group at the post-test (M = 37.30, SD = 7.14) compared to the pre-test (M = 34.52, SD =
7.10), t(22) = -2.45, p = .011 (see Table 3). Differences in pre- and post-test scores of the
target variables are presented in Figures 1-4.

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19

Table 3
Comparison in Pre-Test and Post-Test Means Between the Experimental and Control Group
Experimental
Pre-test Mean
(SD)

Experimental
Post-test Mean
(SD)

Control Pre-test
Mean (SD)

Control Posttest Mean (SD)

SC

2.62 (.50)

3.24 (.55)*

2.67 (.81)

2.79 (.81)

SOP

76.12 (14.09)

69.62 (15.43)**

76.09 (13.31)

72.50 (15.61)

ASE

46.03 (9.27)

49.08 (9.24)*

45.09 (10.08)

46.35 (11.25)

Well-being

36.91 (7.06)

40.29 (7.19)*

34.52 (7.10)

37.30 (7.14)***

Notes. *Denotes a statistically significant difference, p < .001
**Denotes a statistically significant difference, p = .004
***Denotes a statistically significant difference, p = .011
Abbreviations: SC, self-compassion; SOP, self-oriented perfectionism; ASE, academic
self-efficacy
Figure 1
Mean Pre- and Post-Test Scores of Self-Compassion Between Conditions

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

Figure 2
Mean Pre- and Post-Test Scores of Self-Oriented Perfectionism Between Conditions

Figure 3
Mean Pre- and Post-Test Scores of Academic Self-Efficacy Between Conditions

20

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

Figure 4
Mean Pre- and Post-Test Scores of Thriving Between Conditions

MANOVA

21

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22

Differences in self-compassion, self-oriented perfectionism, academic self-efficacy,
and psychological well-being between the experimental and control conditions from pre- to
post-test were determined using a Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). The results
of the assumption checked indicated that the assumption of homogeneity of variancecovariance was insignificant with Box’s M = 18.70, F (9462.71, 10) = 1.71, p = .073,
indicating that covariance matrices of the dependent variables were equal between the
intervention and control conditions. The results of the MANOVA analysis indicated there was
a significant multivariate main effect of the intervention, with Roy’s Largest Root 𝛩𝛩 = .34, F
(4, 50) = 4.27, p = .005, 𝜂𝜂2p = .26. The large effect size, as suggested by the criteria proposed

by Cohen (1988), demonstrates that approximately 26% of variance of the dependent
variables was attributed to the intervention.

The results of the MANOVA were followed-up with a discriminant analysis, which
revealed one significant discriminant function that explained 100% of the variance, canonical
R = .51. This is due to only one variate being considered in this analysis (i.e., the selfcompassion intervention). This discriminant significantly differentiated between the testing
variables, Wilks’ 𝜆𝜆 = .075, 𝜒𝜒2 (4) = 14.99, p = .005. An examination of the discriminant

loading values indicated that participants in the experimental and control conditions differed
in self-compassion, self-oriented perfectionism, academic self-efficacy, and psychological
well-being. More specifically, the results showed that participants involved in the intervention
reported higher levels of self-compassion, academic self-efficacy, and psychological wellbeing, and lower levels of self-oriented perfectionism, as compared to the participants in the
control group. Statistical analyses were performed using the IBM SPSS statistical software
package.

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23

Open-Ended Responses
Participants in the experimental group were asked several open-ended questions at the
conclusion of the intervention to decipher experiences with completing the self-compassion
practices. Questions aimed to investigate the perceived benefits and difficulties with
completing the intervention practices, and whether participants had intentions of completing
self-compassion in the future. Participants reported, for example, noticed an increase in selfreflection and awareness. Participant #5 stated, “I found that I became more in touch with my
feelings, and how to accept them more often,” and participant #3 added, “It was a very
interesting perspective, it allowed me to think more deeply about my thoughts towards
myself.” Additionally, participants recognized how engaging in the intervention practices
provided a break to relax and decompress, which is evident in the response from participant
#11: “It just gave me time to calm down, especially if I’ve had a rough day, and it helped me
to just take a second to breathe.” Furthermore, participant responses reflected how engaging
in the intervention practices increased self-compassion. For example, the response from
participant #23, “[The practices] made me believe that I’m able to strive in my work and that
it’s important to make sure you are not hard on yourself whenever you are going through a
hard time in your life,” reflecting an increase in self-kindness; A response from participant
#63 reflects an increase in common humanity: “It made me think about how we all go through
hard times and self-doubt, even when someone else’s life seems perfect compared to ours”;
Participant #25 mentioned, “I think it helped me temporarily feel more grounded,” reflecting
an increase in mindfulness.
Participants did report some difficulties in completing the practices regularly, citing
time management as one reason. For instance, participant #63 said, “It felt like one more thing
to add to the to-do list on busy days,” which was echoed by another participant (#18) who

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

24

mentioned that, “Sometimes, work and other things just got in the way, and before I knew it,
it was past midnight and I hadn’t done the practice for the day.” Another difficulty reported
involved feeling disengaged from the practices or found it challenging to connect with the
practice. This was evident in the responses from participant #25, “Some of them didn’t feel
overly relevant to me so I struggled to connect,” and participant #16, “Sometimes it was
difficult to stay engaged for the entire practice.” Participants also reported difficulties with
remembering to complete the practices or struggling to be consistent with the practices. This
was reflected in the response from participant #6: “I found it hard to remember to do the
practices, only remembering when the end of the week email was sent out.” With that being
said, some participants did not report having any difficulties in completing the selfcompassion practices.
Most participants reported a high likelihood of practicing self-compassion in the
future but perhaps using different methods. Participant #30, for example, stated, “I see myself
continuing to practice self-compassion in the future, however I think I prefer to use another
method other than the guided audio,” and participant #28 added, “I see the benefit in it but
I’m not sure if I will actually do so. I might try in other ways or when I really need it.”
Moreover, participants reported they plan on continuing to practice self-compassion as it
provided calming and regulatory effects. This was reflected in the responses from participant
#7 and participant #4, which stated, respectively, “I found the self-compassion exercises very
helpful in not spiraling while thinking of issues that I see in myself,” and “It calmed my
nervous system and helped decompress.” Participants also reported wanting to practice selfcompassion in the future as it aided in promoting self-improvement. For instance, participant
#23 stated, “It motivates me to want to be the better version of myself in the future.” Overall,
participant responses reflected positive experiences with completing the self-compassion
practices included in the intervention.

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25
Discussion

The current study aimed to investigate the effects a brief, five-week self-compassion
intervention had on post-secondary students in terms of their self-oriented perfectionism, selfcompassion, academic self-efficacy, and well-being. It was hypothesized that participants in
the experimental group would demonstrate decreases in self-oriented perfectionism, and
increases self-compassion, academic self-efficacy, and psychological well-being compared to
the control group. The findings support these predictions entirely. Considering the relatively
small sample size, these findings make an important contribution to the current literature as it
furthers the understanding of the utility of brief self-compassion interventions on postsecondary students.

Intervention Effects
At post-test, participants in the experimental group demonstrated significant decreases
in self-oriented perfectionism compared to those in the control group. These findings are
consistent with other self-compassion intervention methods that have shown reductions in
maladaptive perfectionism (Bearden et al., 2024; Lui, S. et al., 2023; Woodfin et al., 2021).
As maladaptive perfectionism is often associated with decreased academic self-efficacy
(Damian et al., 2016) and psychological well-being (Fong & Loi, 2016; Koutra et al., 2023;
Tobin & Dunkley, 2021), results of these interventions also found significant increases in
these variables, which also align with the findings of the current study. Interestingly, post-test
analyses revealed both the experimental group and the control group showed significant
increases in well-being (Figure 4). Enhancement of well-being in both groups may have been
attributed to students returning to school after a week-long break during the final week of the
intervention. Also, at the pre-test, both groups reported moderate well-being, which could
reflect the well-being of participants being relatively stable to begin with.

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

26

Additionally, participants in the experimental group demonstrated significant
increases in self-compassion because of the self-compassion intervention. These findings
reflect similarities with other self-compassion interventions within post-secondary student
populations (e.g., Bearden et al., 2024; Ko et al., 2018; Mckay et al., 2024). The findings also
correspond well with other findings from brief self-compassion interventions (Dundas et al.,
2017; Lui et al., 2023; Smeets et al., 2014), highlighting how brief self-compassion
interventions can yield similar results as longer, formal self-compassion interventions. With
this, however, the findings of the current study differ from previous self-compassion
interventions, specifically in terms of how much self-compassion is practiced. For instance,
the brief self-compassion intervention conducted by Lui et al., (2023) involved participants
completing 45-minute self-compassion modules each week over a four-week period, totalling
180 minutes (or 3 hours) of self-compassion completed by the end of the intervention.
Additionally, a two-week self-compassion intervention conducted by Dundas et al. (2017)
involved participants completing three 90-minute self-compassion modules, totalling 270
minutes (or 4.5 hours) of self-compassion during the intervention. The participants of the
current study completed, on average, 15-25 minutes of self-compassion a week for five
weeks, totalling to approximately 75-125 minutes (or 1.25-2 hours) of self-compassion
completed during the intervention. The current findings reflect how practicing less selfcompassion can still yield significant changes in self-compassion, as compared to other brief
self-compassion interventions.
As indicated by the findings of this study, self-compassion has demonstrated to have
significant impacts on academic self-efficacy, self-oriented perfectionism, and well-being, but
self-compassion has shown to be associated with other positive benefits, too; self-compassion
has shown to increase self-esteem (Muris & Otgaar, 2023), emotional regulation (Paucsik et
al., 2022), emotional intelligence (Şenyuva et al., 2013), and interpersonal relationship

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

27

satisfaction (Dong et al., 2022; Körner et al., 2024; Lathren et al., 2021; Neff & Beretvas,
2013; Yarnell & Neff, 2013). Self-esteem has shown to be positively correlated with selfefficacy (Bhatt & Bahadur, 2018), which can be applied to increases in academic self-efficacy
and well-being in student populations (Stupnisky et al., 2013). Moreover, increases in
emotional regulation and intelligence are related to increased relationship satisfaction,
specifically in terms of romantic relationships (Körner et al., 2024; Neff & Beretvas, 2013),
friendships (Dong et al., 2022), and familial relationships (Lathren et al., 2021). Research has
shown that enhancement of interpersonal relationships can combat feelings of loneliness and
isolation (Goodfellow et al., 2022), a positive benefit that mirrors the importance of
recognizing one’s common humanity in self-compassion. These studies highlight how
practicing self-compassion is associated with other positive benefits, suggesting that the postsecondary student participants in this study may have also experienced enhanced well-being
in areas beyond what was measured in the present study.
Considering post-secondary students are often under immense levels of stress with
primary sources of stress relating to academics, finances, and managing interpersonal
relationships (Pitt et al., 2017), dedicating time to engaging in formal self-compassion
practices, such as workshops or courses, may not be feasible. With this surge of mental health
issues amongst students (Linden et al., 2021), institution mental health supports are struggling
to meet the mental health demands of students (Watkins et al., 2011), making it challenging
for students to access the mental health services they require. As the findings of this study
suggest, practicing self-compassion for five minutes a day can have significant benefits on
psychological well-being in students, among other benefits relating to self-oriented
perfectionism and academic self-efficacy. With this, a brief self-compassion intervention may
be a useful tool that can help support students’ mental health while they wait to access formal
mental health services.

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

28

Open-ended Responses
Participant responses regarding their experiences with the self-compassion practices
used in the current study were primarily positive. Firstly, participants explained how they
derived various benefits from completing the practices that enhanced their perceptions of
themselves. More specifically, the benefits derived from the practices highlighted increases in
the three elements of self-compassion: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness.
Participants reported that expressing kindness to oneself, recognizing they are not alone in
their feelings, and feeling more grounded led to increases in self-compassion. Additionally,
completing the self-compassion practices gave participants an opportunity to take a break to
focus on themselves. Participants reported that taking a moment to decompress allowed them
to feel less stressed and more relaxed, highlighting how the self-compassion practices aided in
enhancing mental health and well-being of those in the experimental group. Furthermore,
participants reported that by engaging in these practices, they now feel more prepared to
approach their emotions in a more positive light, focusing on the importance of being kinder
to oneself when experiencing hardship.
Participants did report experiencing some difficulties when completing the selfcompassion practices with a primary barrier involving finding time to complete the practices.
Considering students are busy with numerous other things (Pitt et al., 2017), this is to be
expected. With this, however, participants who completed a few practices a week still noticed
benefits from completing them. This suggests that completing a small amount of selfcompassion can still yield positive impacts on the well-being of students.
Limitations and Future Directions
Like with all research, limitations were present within the study. Firstly, due to the
timelines of this project (given that it was conducted as part of a fourth-year psychology
student independent research project), further follow-up analyses are not able to be conducted

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

29

to determine the long-term effectiveness of the intervention. Future studies should implement
a longitudinal approach to evaluate levels of self-compassion, self-oriented perfectionism,
academic self-efficacy, and well-being after the intervention is complete. With this,
considerations should be made regarding whether participants continued to practice selfcompassion after the intervention. This would determine if the intervention alone was
effective, or if participants are required to continue practicing self-compassion after the
intervention. Secondly, the study relied on self-report measures for the pre- and post-test
surveys as well as the weekly reporting of the self-compassion practices completed. Although
it was reiterated that responses should be accurate and participants would not receive
penalties for not completing the recommended number of practices each week, social
desirability bias remains a potential issue in regard to accuracy of reporting. Thirdly, future
studies should focus on including a larger, more diverse sample of participants. Since the
sample primarily consisted of Caucasian females, including a wider variety of participants in
terms of gender identity, ethnicity, age, etc. would create a better understanding of how a
brief self-compassion intervention impacts a broader demographic of individuals.
Furthermore, some participant feedback mentioned how the self-guided audio practices used
in this study were disengaging and were difficult to connect with. Future studies could
consider implementing various self-compassion practices such as journaling, meditations, or
performing self-care, into a brief self-compassion intervention. This would be helpful to
gauge whether any differences between the effectiveness of each technique arise, leading to
the possibility that one technique may be more effective in a brief self-compassion
intervention setting.
Conclusion
With increasing levels of perfectionism in post-secondary students (Curran & Hill.,
2019), students are in need of accessible ways to combat the effects associated with

BEING KIND TO YOURSELF

30

perfectionism, specifically in terms of their academic success and mental health. Recent
studies highlight the importance of self-compassion and how it can be used to enhance a
multitude of aspects relating to well-being (e.g., Bearden et al., 2024; Lathren et al., 2021;
Muris & Otgaar, 2023), especially in post-secondary students. The present study sought to
explore whether brief self-compassion interventions may have comparable results to longer,
more time intensive efforts to increase self-compassion. Indeed, the present study did
demonstrate that engaging in a brief self-compassion intervention can yield significant
impacts on self-compassion, academic self-efficacy, self-oriented perfectionism, and wellbeing in post-secondary students, which align with findings from other self-compassion
interventions (e.g., Dundas et al., 2017; Lui, S. et al., 2023). Practicing self-compassion for a
few minutes a day can be a useful tool to enhance students’ well-being as it has demonstrated
to significantly reduce self-oriented perfectionism and increase academic self-efficacy and
self-compassion. Further research is required to determine the long-term effectiveness of
engaging in 15-25 minutes of self-compassion a week, aiming to include a larger, more
diverse sample of participants to increase the generalizability of the results. Overall, the
findings of this study contribute to the existing literature on the effects a brief selfcompassion intervention has on post-secondary students, specifically in terms of its impacts
on self-oriented perfectionism, academic self-efficacy, and well-being.

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31

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