Agora Journal Volume 11, 2020
Caged Reality
Terese J. McNabb

Green trees are painted onto the concrete walls of an elephant’s enclosure, in hopes of
providing a more “natural” environment. Beyond the prison-like pillars encaging the desolate
pen, a single blue ball lies stagnant. This elephant’s enclosure is complete with “windows of
bullet-proof glass and gates of heavy steel” (Pruden, par. 1). For 42 years, this elephant house has
been Lucy’s home at the Edmonton Valley Zoo. Lucy’s living conditions and illnesses are a
subject of growing controversy and have garnered attention from animal activists to celebrities.
Bob Barker, the host from The Price is Right, “points to the bitter Canadian cold, to the starkness
of the elephant house, and, most of all, to the fact that she is alone, as evidence that she is not
only unhappy in Edmonton but that she is suffering” (Pruden, par. 44). As elephants are very
social animals, Lucy faces mental distress due to her loneliness. The Edmonton Valley Zoo states
that she also suffers physically from arthritis and a “respiratory problem that makes it difficult
for her to breathe when she is under stress” (“Lucy’s Care”). Lucy is in a catch-22 situation. Due
to Lucy’s severe breathing problem, moving her to a warmer climate would be life-threatening;
however, the cold Edmonton weather aggravates her arthritis joint pain and possibly exacerbates
her respiratory issue. Lucy exemplifies the endless debate about animal welfare in captivity and
calls into question whether or not the existence of zoos is ethical. Although captivity may
provide relative safety and increased accessibility to medical treatments, most animals endure
emotional trauma as a result of confinement and ultimately suffer in their artificial environment.
While animals were once exploited for entertainment and profit in zoos, the current focus
of zoos has shifted more towards awareness, education, and conservation of animals. The
protection of animals, especially endangered species, is one of the main arguments for keeping
animals in captivity. Jennifer Gray, the author of Zoo Ethics: The Challenges of Compassionate
Conservation, claims that “human care may offer protection from the physical pain and
suffering” (Gray 73) that animals experience in the wild, as they are “protected from predation,

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hunting, and disease” (Gray 73). However, the promise of protection for endangered species is
compromised due to increased criminal activity. Many “rare, endangered or exotic animals”
(“The Rainforest Site,” par. 7) are stolen from zoos and sold on the lucrative black market.
Despite being protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, a
pair of highly endangered golden lion tamarins and their offspring were stolen “right out of their
enclosure, likely by professional animal dealers” (“The Rainforest Site,” par. 1) at the Krefeld
Zoo. Not only are countless zoo animals stolen, but some are also poached for their valuable
body parts. In 2017, poachers broke into France’s Thoiry Zoo, killing Vince, a four-year-old
white rhino, whose species is on the brink of extinction. Despite surveillance cameras and staff
members living on-site, Vince’s horns were “hacked off by a chainsaw” (Actman, par. 2). This
appalling act shows that endangered species in zoos are targeted by poachers, just as they are in
the wild. Nonetheless, Jorge Cassinello, an expert in zoology, highlights that “Zoological
institutions make huge efforts in keeping and breeding endangered species, with a view to
preserve them from extinction and, ideally, to reintroduce them back into their natural habitats”
(Cassinello 453). Despite this intent to preserve the species, Cassinello’s investigation into the
interbreeding of captive gazelles actually concluded that captive breeding “increase[s] extinction
risk,” due to the “loss of genetic diversity” (453-454). However, as zoos strive to maintain
genetically diverse populations, the process of culling involves the euthanization of “surplus”
animals. At the Copenhagen Zoo, a healthy giraffe named Marius was slaughtered because he
was deemed a “surplus animal” (Goldman, par. 1) due to his genes being “already sufficiently
represented in the giraffe population” (Goldman, par. 1). Because Marius was not “add[ing] or
help[ing] to maintain genetic diversity” (Young, par. 8), he was allegedly “taking up limited and
valuable space” (Young, par. 8). These instances clearly display that the zoos’ fundamental
principle to preserve endangered species is flawed due to breached security, persistent poaching,
and the decreased genetic variability in captive breeding.
While zoos may provide relief from physical pain and suffering experienced in the wild,
Gray argues that emotional suffering is induced by captivity, as pleasure and satisfaction are
missing from the animals’ lives (73). Applying Maslow’s psychological theory of a hierarchy of
needs, Gray proposes that animals also have needs that must be fulfilled. An animal’s basic
physiological and safety needs are met in captivity, while the higher order needs are not (Gray

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73). In the context of animals, the highest need, known as self-actualization, is “allowing them to
live in the niche they have evolved to fill” (Gray 73-74). Due to human interference, an animals’
niche is never truly satisfied in captivity, such as predatory cats getting their meals served instead
of unleashing them to hunt. Professor Heini Hediger explains that a wild animal’s niche consists
of being “constantly preoccupied with the impulses to avoid enemies and to seek food” (158).
Once in captivity, animals lose sense of their niche and, consequently, their purpose in life.
As animals are wired to fulfill their niches, the absence of purpose in captivity results in
“emotional suffering,” which includes “fear, frustration, boredom, isolation, induced loneliness
or depression” (Gray 72). In order to communicate observations of animal behaviour, researchers
often anthropomorphize animal emotions. This allows for speculation of the animal’s welfare, as
behaviours and physical responses are “indicator[s] of the internal state” (Gray 65). Professor
Mark Bekoff, who co-founded Ethologists for the Ethical Treatment of Animals with Jane
Goodall, acknowledges that anthropomorphism must be done “biocentrically” (Bekoff 11),
meaning that the animals’ point of view must be taken into consideration to avoid
anthropomorphic fallacy.
Although some skeptics may argue that animals lack any sort of “emotional life” (Bekoff
9), neuroscientific research has revealed that there is anatomical evidence of emotion in animals.
By discovering all mammals share neuroanatomical structures that are involved in the control of
emotions, such as the amygdala and the hippocampus, it proves that animals are capable of
experiencing emotion. Through studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
technology, elephants were found to have a “huge hippocampus” (Bekoff 9). This brain structure
is involved in processing emotions, proving that elephants are “very sensitive beings” (Bekoff 8).
Due to their sensitivity, it was also shown that “social trauma can affect their physiology,
behaviour, and culture over generations” (Bekoff 8). It is proven that elephants may suffer from
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Bekoff 8). Because elephants have such strong family
bonds in the wild, it is possible that Lucy could suffer from PTSD, as she has no companions at
the Edmonton Valley Zoo. However, mammals such as Lucy are not the only animals who suffer
in captivity. Another breakthrough in the scientific discovery of animal emotion is the presence
of spindle cells. Before, these specialized cells that are involved in social organization, empathy,
and processing emotion were thought to be limited to humans and apes (Bekoff 8). However,

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spindle cells were recently found in humpback whales, fin whales, sperm whales, and orcas
(Bekoff 8). This realization that orcas have the capacity to experience emotion can be linked to
the orca’s collapsed dorsal fin, that occurs while in captivity. One belief is that a collapsed dorsal
fin is related to depression in captive orcas, due to confinement and isolation in their concrete
tank (Pagnotta, par. 3). Because of the physiological evidence of animal emotion, there is an
opportunity for scientists to pursue future research relating to mental health in animals.
Based on behavioural observation and research, a new concern has arisen for captive
animals’ mental well-being. In zoos, there have been several reported cases of stereotypic
behaviour: “an invariant, repetitive behaviour pattern with no apparent goal or function” (Sawe,
par. 1). These behavioural disorders may include pacing, circling, excessive grooming, and even
self-harm. An example of self-mutilation is feather picking in captive birds, such as the black
vulture. In severe cases, a bird’s aversive behaviour may extend from plucking feathers to the
“excision of the skin” (Bouchenot 38). Orcas also display self-harm by “banging their heads
against the sides of their tanks or against the separation gates” (Marino et al. 74). These unusual
behaviours are not observed in the wild, signifying that confinement has detrimental effects on
an animal’s mental health. In response to stereotypic disorders, zoos administer antipsychotic
drugs, such as “Prozac and Valium to giraffes, badgers, gorillas, and bears to help them cope in
the unnatural habitats they live in” (Sawe, par. 4). Evidently, diagnoses of depression and anxiety
in zoo animals are on the rise.
Vint Virga, a veterinary behaviourist, has been involved with several encounters of
mental illness and emotional suffering in captive animals. Earlier in his career, Virga witnessed a
clouded leopard who expressed symptoms of severe clinical depression. The clouded leopard
displayed stereotypic behaviour as “she had licked her majestic tail bald” (Halberstadt, par. 23)
and spent her time perched on a tree branch with a “vacant, faraway expression” (Halberstadt,
par. 23). There were several attempts made trying to coax the leopard to engage with her
environment; however, she remained unresponsive. Analyzing the leopard’s behaviour, Virga
concluded that “she had lost all interest in her world because it offered her nothing to do or to
explore” (Halberstadt, par. 24). Clouded leopards are naturally solitary creatures, so they struggle
to adjust to their cramped and exposed environment. Virga stated the clouded leopard had “lost

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her will to live” (Halberstadt, par. 24). In contrast, Virga observed a gibbon named BaHee, who
seemingly enjoyed captivity, as he was a “showman” (Halberstadt, par. 26). Regularly, BaHee
would interact with the visitors by placing his hand on the glass to match the hand of the visitor,
performing tricks and making faces. BaHee’s behaviour changed drastically once Gloria, his
companion, was euthanized, as he “ate less, moved less and sometimes refused to go on exhibit”
(Halberstadt, par. 28). Virga suspected that BaHee was clinically depressed, and his abnormal
behaviour was caused by grief. Because cases of depression are undocumented in the wild, Irene
Pepperberg, a comparative psychologist, suggests “an animal in the wild can’t afford to be
depressed” (Halberstadt, par. 17) because “it will simply be killed or starve, since its
environment requires constant vigilance” (Halberstadt, par. 17). In confinement, their survival
instinct is diminished, which fosters depression in some animals.
Zoo enclosures are a primary source of an animal’s emotional suffering. The artificiality
and constrictive nature of the enclosures, such as their “fake grass being electrified” (Worland,
par. 30), causes many animal’s mental well-being to deteriorate. Exposure to visitors also greatly
affects various animals’ anxiety and stress. In mammals, stress can be measured through fecal
cortisol levels and behaviour patterns (Thangavel et al. 20). Studies analyzing raised cortisol
levels of animals in captivity have shown that zoo visitors affect animal welfare. In one study, it
was found that the presence of visitors also elicited abnormal behavioural responses in penguins,
such as “immobility, retreat or avoidance, vigilance, huddling, reduced preening and aggression”
(Chiew et al. 3). In a zoo, animals are subjected to various forms of stimulation and are “exposed
to sound levels exceeding those to which their species is naturally adapted” (Jakob-Hoff et al. 2).
These unnatural stimuli cause distress in animals. In order to provide better animal welfare, zoos
will renovate enclosures to create a better environment for the animal, but the construction itself
may inflict more harm on the animals. A study was conducted exploring the consequences of
construction noise on an animal’s well-being. It was discovered that “prolonged exposure [to
construction noise] can induce a state of chronic stress that can have deleterious effects on
reproduction, immune status, growth and increased sensitivity to acute stress” (Jakob-Hoff et al.
2). This clearly displays that even when zoos attempt to provide a better quality of life for
animals, they still ultimately worsen it. No matter how much a zoo may try to accommodate an

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animal’s mental and emotional needs in their enclosure, these facilities cannot replicate the true
surroundings of the wild.
In captivity, an animal’s life is entirely constructed by humans, down to “breeding, food,
environment and even social structures” (Gray 71). These artificial circumstances result in
aversive animal behaviour, such as stereotypy, and the development of psychological disorders
like depression and anxiety. In humans, depression is linked to both genetic and environmental
factors. Consequently, considering how animals are neurologically related to humans, is it
possible that captivity is breeding depression in the animals? Some people may argue that zoos
provide better overall health to the animals due to the accessibility of veterinary medicine;
however, animals are now being prescribed antidepressants to cope with their confinement.
When animals are in the wild, they do not need antidepressants because they are preoccupied
with fulfilling their natural niche. Jon Coe, a zoo designer, proposes that “zoos could face new
competition from virtual-reality technologies” (Worland, par. 20). Cameras could be set up in the
wild, providing people with an “up-close experience without their having to leave home”
(Worland 20). This revolution would tremendously benefit the animals, as they would be able to
escape the public eye and roam beyond their exhibit. Hopefully, through this newly proposed zoo
concept, Lucy and all animals alike will be able to break free from the chains of captivity,
eliminate their emotional suffering and live in the wild as nature intended.

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Feb. 2014, https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtful-animal/ethics-at-the-zoo- thecase-of-marius-the-giraffe/. Accessed 5 May 2020.
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Young, Robert. “The Real Reason Copenhagen Zoo Euthanized a Giraffe: Parenthood,” Slate, 11
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